From the COVID vaccine to pulsars to pc programming, girls are on the supply of many scientific discoveries, innovations and improvements that form our lives. However within the tales we’ve come to simply accept about these breakthroughs, girls are too typically overlooked.
Every season at Misplaced Ladies of Science, we’ll have a look at one girl and her scientific accomplishment—who she was, how she lived, and what she discovered. Katie Hafner, a longtime reporter for The New York Occasions, explains the science behind every girl’s work and explores the historic context wherein she lived.
Our first season, “The Pathologist within the Basement,” is all about Dr. Dorothy Andersen, the doctor and pathologist who solved a medical thriller when she recognized and outlined cystic fibrosis in 1938. A passionate outdoorswoman, a “rugged individualist,” and a little bit of an enigma, Dr. Andersen modified the best way we perceive acute lung and gastrointestinal issues in younger kids.
This podcast is distributed by PRX and revealed in partnership with Scientific American.
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EPISODE TRANSCRIPT
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: Cystic fibrosis again then…
BIJAL TRIVEDI: …was simply thought of a dying sentence.
SARA KOMINSKY: It feels such as you’re suffocating to dying.
BIJAL TRIVEDI: Dorothy Andersen…
SCOTT BAIRD: She was the primary to diagnose CF in a residing affected person…
BIJAL TRIVEDI: She was down within the basement of Infants Hospital doing these autopsies.
SCOTT BAIRD: The primary to acknowledge that CF was a hereditary illness…
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: I imply, she’s simply sensible. And she or he put this puzzle collectively.
SCOTT BAIRD: Dorothy Andersen was in a position to push the boundaries.
CELIA ORES: She was type, clever, and really bossy.
MICHELLE ORES: We’re happening to the basement the place my mom saved her medical information…
KATIE HAFNER: Welcome to Misplaced Ladies of Science. I’m your host, Katie Hafner.
I’ve been writing about science and know-how for many years, most of that point for The New York Occasions. Over time I interviewed Steve Jobs, Invoice Gates, Jeff Bezos, Sergey Brin and Larry Web page… and are available to consider it even earlier than Google existed, I interviewed the creators of the Web. However I can’t consider a single girl who was a significant determine in any of the tales I wrote. I don’t keep in mind it bothering me very a lot on the time, it simply appeared…regular.
Nowadays I write obituaries for the Occasions, and I nonetheless face resistance after I’m writing about lesser identified girls in science whose work was pivotal to their subject. Which leads me to the central thesis of the Misplaced Ladies of Science podcast: For each Marie Curie whose story has been advised, there are dozens extra tales of innovation and simply plain genius problem-solving accomplished by nice feminine scientists who swam in opposition to the present. Misplaced Ladies of Science shall be exploring what they did, how they lived, and what occurred. How did their tales get misplaced?
It’s one thing that performed out in my circle of relatives. Each my grandparents on my mom’s facet had been scientists. My grandfather, Jerrold Zacharias, was a well known atomic physicist at MIT who invented the atomic clock and labored on the Manhattan Undertaking, and in addition modified the best way physics was taught in colleges.
My grandmother, Leona Zacharias, was an completed biologist who received her Ph.D. from Columbia College in 1937. However the skilled fanfare I keep in mind was round him—his achievements, his accolades. Her work? It by no means actually got here up.
The ladies we’ll be speaking about in Misplaced Ladies of Science have achieved one thing vital, even groundbreaking, but we barely know something about their position within the developments of science. This goes effectively past being disappointing. It’s tragic. It speaks to simply how detached society has been to what girls can do, and extra importantly, what they have accomplished.
The omission of key scientists from our collective reminiscence must be fastened. At Misplaced Ladies of Science, we’re revisiting the historic file, one extraordinary scientist at a time.
We’re calling this primary season “The Pathologist within the Basement.” And we’ll be shining a light-weight on Dr. Dorothy Andersen. She was a doctor and pathologist whose sensible and dogged detective work within the Nineteen Thirties led her to unravel a medical thriller. And that thriller was this: What was the true nature of cystic fibrosis, a devastating sickness that was killing younger kids and had been routinely misdiagnosed, for years and years?
FRANCIS COLLINS: So, I’m Francis Collins. I’m a doctor and a scientist and at the moment the director of the Nationwide Institutes of Well being.
KATIE HAFNER: Along with main the NIH, Dr. Collins within the Nineties led the Human Genome Undertaking, the large effort that unraveled the mysteries of DNA. Dr. Collins is aware of just a little about Dorothy Andersen.
FRANCIS COLLINS: I do know her as the one that, in 1938, described this dysfunction, cystic fibrosis of the pancreas.
KATIE HAFNER: However he was a bit chagrined to confess, that’s just about all he is aware of.
FRANCIS COLLINS: I don’t know a lot about her profession, her individual, as any person who should have traveled an attention-grabbing journey as a lady working in medical analysis.
KATIE HAFNER: As one of many scientists who remoted the cystic fibrosis gene in 1989, Dr. Collins stood on the shoulders of path-breaking scientists like Dr. Dorothy Andersen. He’s additionally an outspoken champion of ladies in science. So if he doesn’t know a lot about her, who does?
On this episode, we’re going to deal with two mysteries. The primary is the illness itself–cystic fibrosis. Within the Nineteen Thirties, it was a merciless killer of infants that was routinely misdiagnosed—till Dorothy Andersen solved the puzzle. After which we’ll flip to the thriller of Dorothy Andersen herself, an ingenious medical sleuth who left behind only a few clues for these of us making an attempt to know what made her tick.
Dorothy Andersen stood out. She was one of many only a few girls working as a doctor within the first half of the 20 th century.
BIJAL TRIVEDI: Within the thirties, girls made up solely 5 % of practising physicians, so she was a rarity.
KATIE HAFNER: That’s Bijal Trivedi, a science journalist whose guide, “Breath from Salt,” describes the historical past of cystic fibrosis.
BIJAL TRIVEDI: Dorothy Andersen had all the time needed to observe medication. She was a decided girl and she or he needed to have a profession, and settled for changing into a pathologist.
KATIE HAFNER: On the time, there have been few choices for ladies with medical levels–many hospitals wouldn’t rent girls, and even when they did, girls often received pigeonholed to specialties like gynecology or psychiatry. In these days, women and men alike typically objected to being seen by feminine physicians, which additionally led many ladies to pathology, the place docs not often interacted with sufferers.
Pathologists examine the character and explanation for illness. And within the 1930’s, one of many solely methods to research how illness ravaged the physique was via autopsies.
That’s the way it got here to move at some point in 1935 that Dr. Dorothy Andersen stood at a chrome steel desk within the basement of Columbia’s Infants Hospital in Washington Heights. Her activity was indescribably tragic, however she was all enterprise as she set upon it—to dissect the organs of one more baby who had died. This baby was a 3 yr outdated woman.
The woman had come into the hospital a yr earlier than…
BIJAL TRIVEDI: …and she or he seemed horrible. She had a distended stomach, skinny limbs, foul, persistent diarrhea, and she or he had been recognized with celiac illness and despatched residence. However there she was a yr later, and she or he was useless. And so Dorothy Andersen began doing this post-mortem and slowly started to appreciate that this was not celiac illness.
KATIE HAFNER: On the time, it was widespread for kids with cystic fibrosis to be misdiagnosed with celiac illness–
Lots of people are delicate to gluten, and a subset of these individuals have full-blown celiac illness—an immune response to wheat and rye that inflames the gut and might trigger extreme GI signs. This irritation can be a symptom of cystic fibrosis. In fact these are two very completely different illnesses with very completely different therapies and outcomes. However, on the time, the misdiagnosis was comprehensible. And there have been two causes for it. First, they’d the GI signs in widespread. That was primary. And quantity two: Frequent pneumonias and respiratory issues had been misattributed to the malnutrition that accompanies celiac illness as an alternative of an issue with the lungs.
In order Dorothy Andersen started inspecting the organs of the 3-year-old baby…
BIJAL TRIVEDI: …she realized that there have been a number of variations, and essentially the most profound variations had been within the lungs. And as she began to look into the airways of the lungs, she noticed that they had been, they had been plugged filled with mucus, thick, sticky, inexperienced mucus. However when she minimize into the pancreas, I imply, she may barely get the scalpel in. And when she type of tried to chop, she heard a scraping sound as if she had been reducing via grit or sand. All she may see was this fibrous, robust materials, utterly enveloping the entire gland. So, you already know, she knew this was one thing very, very completely different.
WILLIAM SKACH: You already know, with Dorothy Anderson’s description of the particular entity of CF, it grew to become clear that it was multi-system.
KATIE HAFNER That’s Dr. William Skach, the outgoing Chief Scientific Officer of the Cystic Fibrosis Basis.
WILLIAM SKACH: It didn’t simply have an effect on the lungs or the pancreas, however affected a number of tissues.
KATIE HAFNER: To grasp simply how cystic fibrosis impacts a number of methods, we have to take a quick medical tour into the physique–and particularly, its tubes. Bear with me. One of many miracles of our building is that we’re crammed with tubes–conduits that transfer stuff from one place to a different. Maybe essentially the most acquainted ones are blood vessels–an intricate arborized community of miles of tubes that flow into blood. Block these tubes–mostly by a clot–and the tissue on the far finish dies. When it’s the mind, it’s a stroke. When it’s the center itself, it’s a coronary heart assault.
The lungs even have blood vessels, however crucial tubes out and in of the lungs are those that permit for oxygen to come back in and carbon dioxide to come back out. If these tubes are blocked, we will’t dwell.
The pancreas additionally has tubes–the principle one being the pancreatic duct. The miracle right here is that the pancreas, which is producing digestive enzymes able to breaking down a bit of steak in our gut, doesn’t digest itself. The reason being that the corrosive enzymes circulation into these tubes, and from there they enter the intestines. However block these tubes and the juices again up into the pancreas itself, to devastating impact.
What Dorothy Andersen found was that the first downside with these sufferers was very completely different from what causes celiac illness.
And so Dorothy Andersen’s discovery was that the lungs and pancreas shared the identical deadly downside—that the true problem wasn’t irritation within the wall of the gut. It was the clogging of the tubes within the pancreas and the lungs. One thing was gumming up the tubes like molasses in a straw.
Once more, Bijal Trivedi.
BIJAL TRIVEDI: With this illness, sufferers get persistent lung infections that destroy lung tissue and restrict the power to breathe. This thick mucus additionally builds up of their airways, to allow them to’t truly inhale correctly. They will’t take a full breath and breathe deeply. They will’t giggle correctly, as a result of they don’t have the air to giggle.
SARA KOMINSKY: It feels such as you’re suffocating to dying. And on the level earlier than my first lung transplant, I couldn’t even stroll throughout the room, even on oxygen, with out gasping and feeling like I’d… throw up as a result of it took a lot effort.
KATIE HAFNER: That was Sara Kominsky who’s 50 now, describing what it’s wish to have cystic fibrosis. Subsequent is Malory Woodruff, who’s in her mid-30s.
MALLORY WOODRUFF: I began getting winded rather a lot simpler. I began producing extra mucus, cough, coughing up plugs. The plugs began getting, you already know, thicker and greener, yuckier. After which, by the point I used to be in school…it was actually laborious to get to class, actually.
SARA KOMINSKY: All the opposite CF sufferers I met throughout my childhood and younger maturity, by the point I used to be in my mid-20s early-30s, all of them had handed away.
KATIE HAFNER: Within the Nineteen Seventies and 80s, when Sara and Mallory had been born, CF sufferers not often lived previous their teenagers.
However their prospects are bettering. Right this moment, the life expectancy for CF sufferers is round 50. And a breakthrough drug referred to as Trikafta was authorized by the FDA simply two years in the past. It’s very costly, however Trikafta guarantees to dramatically enhance this prognosis and the sufferers’ high quality of life.
Dorothy Andersen wasn’t getting down to establish a wholly completely different illness. However she saved an open thoughts, open sufficient to course of shocking findings and think about the chance that the medical group’s prior understanding was simply plain fallacious.
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: Effectively, I’ve Dorothy Andersen’s papers proper right here on my desk. In reality, I maintain them in a bag that I convey backwards and forwards to work just about on a regular basis.
KATIE HAFNER: That’s Brian O’Sullivan, a pediatric pulmonologist who teaches on the Geisel Faculty of Medication at Dartmouth.
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: And the primary is one from the American Journal of Illnesses of Childhood in 1938. And it’s title is “Cystic Fibrosis of the Pancreas and Its Relation to Celiac Illness: A Scientific and Pathological Examine,” by Dorothy H. Andersen, MD, New York.
KATIE HAFNER:I first got here throughout Dr. O’Sullivan’s title when he was quoted in a 2014 article in The Lancet, some of the common medical journals. The article was a quick biographical sketch of Dr. Andersen. And it seems that yearly when Brian O’Sullivan lectures to first-year med college students about cystic fibrosis…
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: The illness has clearly been round for millennia. It’s a genetic illness.
KATIE HAFNER: He makes some extent of paying tribute to this key determine within the historical past of the illness.
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: I wish to take a minute to name out Dorothy Andersen. It is a girl who, you already know, within the 1920’s, late twenties, early thirties when she was going to medical college, there weren’t a number of girls in medical college. And it’s humorous, I’m searching on the viewers now, and it’s nearly all girls. However it was very completely different within the thirties.
KATIE HAFNER: That 1938 paper he carries with him always was 50 pages lengthy and written by a single creator, which might be exceptional in at this time’s world of publishing, the place there are often no less than half a dozen, and typically tons of of authors on a paper.
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: There’s the outdated saying, “Luck favors the ready thoughts.” The luck was that she was able the place she noticed some kids, sadly, who had died of this downside. The ready thoughts is Dorothy. I imply, she’s simply sensible, and she or he put this puzzle collectively. And so she acknowledged that she was seeing a bunch of youngsters who had a few of the hallmarks of celiac illness however on post-mortem had very completely different issues.
KATIE HAFNER: That fifty web page paper she revealed reviewed 20 instances from Dr. Andersen’s personal establishment and plenty of extra from different locations, in an period the place there was no Google Scholar.
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: She should have spent hours within the library discovering these articles after which writing to different physicians and seeing if she may get their slides from autopsies to have the ability to examine to what she was seeing.
KATIE HAFNER: She reviewed tons of of pathology slides from different kids believed to have died from celiac illness, till…
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN: She actually spelled out that she was figuring out a very completely different illness, and it was the primary time it actually was acknowledged as a separate entity.
KATIE HAFNER: And she or he didn’t cease there. After recognizing cystic fibrosis as one thing completely different, Dorothy Andersen went again to work, making an attempt to know as a lot as she may in regards to the illness. And she or he began racking up a number of firsts.
SCOTT BAIRD: She was the primary to diagnose CF in a residing affected person, the primary to emphasise weight loss plan and pancreatic enzyme substitute remedy in CF, the primary to efficiently deal with pulmonary an infection in CF with antibiotics, and the primary to acknowledge that CF was a hereditary illness expressed within the method of a recessive trait.
KATIE HAFNER: Scott Baird is a pediatric essential care physician at Columbia College Medical Heart and he’s seen scores of CF sufferers all through his scientific profession. Like Dorothy Andersen earlier than him, Dr. Baird has spent the majority of his skilled life at Columbia, so there’s a kinship there. And Scott Baird, it seems, isn’t only a fan of Dr. Andersen’s work; he’s on a quest to fill within the particulars of her life.
SCOTT BAIRD: Dorothy Andersen, who by no means was particularly educated in pathology, by no means particularly educated in pediatrics, grew to become a world-class pathologist, a world-class pediatrician, and clearly was a world-class researcher, any person who was in a position to outline and decide what is perhaps related to illness in sufferers, and who was in a position to push the boundaries.
KATIE HAFNER: Arising, we’ll begin to untangle extra about this mysterious scientist. I’m Katie Hafner and that is Misplaced Ladies of Science.
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KATIE HAFNER: So now that we admire what Dorothy Andersen did, let’s attempt to unravel one other thriller: who she was.
Dorothy Hansine Anderson graduated from Johns Hopkins Medical Faculty in 1926, certainly one of solely 5 girls in her class. However Hopkins was effectively forward of its time. When the medical college opened in 1893, there have been three girls admitted to the primary class. Harvard Medical Faculty wouldn’t formally admit its first girls till 1945!
Right here’s Brian O’Sullivan once more:
BRIAN O’SULLIVAN:. Um, following that she went to Rochester and did an internship after which she needed to develop into a surgeon. In that day, girls simply weren’t accepted as surgeons.
KATIE HAFNER: In 1926, when Dorothy Andersen graduated medical college, there have been virtually no feminine surgeons. In reality, till 1975, the American School of Surgeons admitted 5 or fewer girls a yr. So Dorothy Andersen settled for a profession in pathology.
Within the medical group, pathologists typically have a popularity for not being individuals individuals, of working with useless our bodies and lifeless organs for a motive. Pathologists seldom see residing sufferers, besides to do sure biopsies. However Dorothy Andersen was a special sort of pathologist. Right here’s Scott Baird once more:
SCOTT BAIRD: She felt the struggling of others, and she or he did her greatest to attempt to decrease that each time doable. It’s tough to advance the care and advance medical information on the identical time that you just’re offering the sympathetic care she offered for all of them.
KATIE HAFNER: Within the Forties, cystic fibrosis was so new that folks had bother discovering physicians who knew a lot about it or who had been even prepared to tackle a brand new cystic fibrosis affected person, particularly when the prognosis was so grim and dying so swift. On the time, it was uncommon for sufferers with CF to dwell previous 5. However phrase began to unfold that there was this physician in New York Metropolis who knew all in regards to the illness. Determined mother and father started bringing their youngsters to Dr. Andersen from far and wide. Right here’s Doris Tulcin, whose daughter was recognized with cystic fibrosis in 1953.
DORIS TULCIN: And after taking her to many, many alternative docs who couldn’t work out what was fallacious, we went via an agonizing three months till a really expensive good friend of my mom’s, who was a nurse, learn in a nurse’s journal a couple of Dorothy Andersen and cystic fibrosis.
KATIE HAFNER: So Doris Tulcin took her daughter to see Dr. Andersen.
DORIS TULCIN: She was a dowdy-looking factor, with a bun at the back of her head, no make-up. She had on a lab coat. You possibly can inform she was an enormous smoker as a result of she smelled of cigarettes, however she was very type. And also you knew that she actually, actually cared about what she was doing for these youngsters.
KATIE HAFNER: Okay, so let’s see: Dowdy–by the best way, I can’t consider a single time I heard a person described as “dowdy”–brilliant, a heavy smoker, nice with a microscope, however what else?
We knew she’d grown up in North Carolina and Vermont and she or he’d been orphaned as a teen. She by no means married and devoted her life to her work. And that piece in The Lancet that I discussed earlier, it stated this. She described herself as a “rugged individualist.”
And I knew she earned her bachelor’s diploma in Chemistry and Zoology at Mount Holyoke School, a girls’s school in South Hadley, Massachusetts.
LESLIE FIELDS: My title is Leslie Fields, and I’m the top of archives and particular collections at Mt. Holyoke School.
KATIE HAFNER: The varsity retains biographical information on lots of its graduates, organized by graduating yr. Dorothy Andersen entered Mt. Holyoke in 1918, the yr the Spanish flu pandemic hit the nation, and she or he graduated in 1922, not even two years after girls received the correct to vote.
LESLIE FIELDS: So some college students and alums would possibly merely have a single biographical sheet that has just a little little bit of factual details about them. And others may need 50 packing containers of correspondence. So hers is on the smaller facet. So it’s two thick folders. That’s the extent of what we now have in her biographical materials. They’re primarily made up {of professional} paperwork and administrative information from the faculty perspective on her. So we truly, we don’t have her private papers right here.
KATIE HAFNER: The alumni questionnaires that requested about marriage and youngsters had been left clean.
LESLIE FIELDS: However her training part about graduate college and changing into a health care provider, that’s in nice element. And there’s even a query about publications, and she or he often writes one thing like, “Over 80 publications, too quite a few to checklist right here.”
KATIE HAFNER: That half is sensible. When it comes to profession accomplishments, Dorothy Andersen fulfilled the Mt. Holyoke promise. The varsity was a bastion of science training from the day in 1837 when Mary Lyon, a devoutly non secular educator and self-taught chemistry professor, opened its doorways. And far was anticipated of Mt. Holyoke’s college students.
LESLIE FIELDS: There’s an expectation by Mary Woolley…
KATIE HAFNER: Who was the president when Dorothy Andersen was a scholar.
LESLIE FIELDS: …that they will do one thing with their lives, they’re going to serve the world in a roundabout way. Serving to others in a roundabout way was an actual focus of the faculty group at the moment. After which they’re type of launched into the world, and I believe for a few of them, it seems like that was laborious as a result of perhaps the world wasn’t fairly prepared to simply accept them as skilled girls in some methods. So on the market, actual choices may need been extra restricted.
KATIE HAFNER: I couldn’t go to Mt. Holyoke in individual due to COVID. In order I’m perusing the 80-page PDF that Leslie Area’s colleague has despatched, one thing catches my eye. It’s a questionnaire Dorothy Andersen crammed out in 1944. There in the course of the again web page is that this query: “Identify and tackle of individual almost definitely all the time to know your whereabouts”. Dorothy Andersen put a query mark. Right here’s this girl, 43 years into her life, and when requested, “Who will all the time know the place you’re?” she didn’t have a solution.
And it will get me to questioning, What does it imply to dwell a life crammed with accomplishments and never to have the ability to reply that fundamental query? Who’s going to protect the reminiscence of what you’ve accomplished and who you had been? I believe that is how massive items of a life go lacking. They slip via the cracks of historical past and so they’re misplaced. It implies that massive swaths of your life could also be punctuated with a query mark.
Most of Dorothy Andersen’s colleagues have died, however there’s one….
CELIA ORES: Can you place this down and we might go and choose up physician Andersen and put her right here on the desk?
SOPHIE MCNULTY: Oh, the photograph? Yeah. Yeah, let’s go. Let’s go discover the photograph.
KATIE HAFNER:The individuals you’ll be listening to are Sophie McNulty, who’s our affiliate producer, Michelle Ores, and her mom—
CELIA ORES: My title is Celia Ores. I used to be born in Poland within the city of Dubienka, and we had been compelled to depart our properties when Hitler got here to our residence.
KATIE HAFNER: Dr. Ores ultimately got here to the US and went on to be a outstanding pediatrician herself. She’s in her nineties now, and she or he labored with Dorothy Andersen at Infants Hospital within the early Sixties.
Celia Ores utterly revered Dr. Andersen. And it seems that she even retains a framed {photograph} of Dr. Anderson on a shelf proper subsequent to her mattress.
MICHELLE ORES: I’ve it right here, mother.
SOPHIE MCNULTY: Michelle has them.
CELIA ORES: Oh, okay.
MICHELLE ORES: I’ve the 2 images. I’ve the certainly one of Dorothy. And the certainly one of you in Switzerland in medical college.
CELIA ORES: It’s um, that is within the nation, she was.
SOPHIE MCNULTY: This {photograph}?
CELIA ORES: She had a rustic residence and college students had been invited for teams. It’s an enormous forest and it was household.
KATIE HAFNER: The black and white {photograph} was taken within the early 1960’s, only a yr or so earlier than Dr. Andersen died. She seems robust, as many individuals say she was, but additionally type. The photograph stayed on the desk through the interview with Dr. Ores. And on occasion, whereas she was speaking, she would look over at it.
CELIA ORES: She was my supporter there. No man may come to me whereas she was alive and there and inform me any damaging factor as a result of they’d be killed by her. So she was my protector and my information, and she or he gave me the braveness to do a number of issues.
KATIE HAFNER: Dr. Ores stopped practising medication greater than a decade in the past, and her daughter Michelle has her mom’s papers saved in her basement in Connecticut.
MICHELLE ORES: We’re happening to the basement, the place my mom saved her medical information.
KATIE HAFNER: At first, it seems like we’ve hit a useless finish.
SOPHIE MCNULTY: It seems like most of those packing containers are simply from her personal observe and persevering with work at Columbia.
KATIE HAFNER: That’s Sophie once more, she’s gone to Connecticut to look via Dr. Ores’s packing containers.
SOPHIE MCNULTY: I’ll let you already know if I discover something.
KATIE HAFNER: Then, a discovery…
SOPHIE MCNULTY: Okay, I believe I hit the jackpot. I simply discovered two folders titled “Dorothy Andersen.”
KATIE HAFNER: In our subsequent episode of LWOS, we’ll dig via the packing containers and see what we will discover.
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This has been Misplaced Ladies of Science. Due to everybody who made this initiative occur, together with my co-executive producer Amy Scharf, Senior Producer Tracy Wahl, affiliate producer Sophie McNulty, composer Elizabeth Younan, and technical director Abdullah Rufus. We’re grateful to Jane Grogan, Mike Fung, Susan Kare, Scott Baird, Brian McTear, Alison Gwinn, Bob Wachter, Nora Mathison, Robin Linn, Matt Engle, Cathie Bennett Warner, Maria Klawe, Jeannie Stivers, Nikaline McCarley, Bijal Trivedi, and our interns, Kylie Tangonan, Baiz Hoen and Ella Zaslow. Thanks additionally to the Mount Holyoke archives for serving to with our search, to the Cystic Fibrosis Basis for all their help. To Paula Goodwin, Nicole Schilling and the remainder of the authorized staff at Perkins Coie, and to Harvey Mudd School, a pacesetter in exemplary STEM training. We’re additionally grateful to Barnard School, a pacesetter in empowering younger girls to pursue their passions in STEM in addition to the humanities, for help through the Barnard 12 months of Science.
Due to Emily Quirk and Jim Schachter at New Hampshire Public Radio, the place this podcast was recorded.
Misplaced Ladies of Science is funded partially by the Gordon and Betty Moore Basis, Schmidt Futures and the John Templeton Basis, which catalyzes conversations about residing purposeful and significant lives.
This podcast is distributed by PRX and revealed in partnership with Scientific American.
Thanks a lot for listening. I’m Katie Hafner.
